.Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in the and that examines psychological structure from a modern perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved – that is, the functional products of. Thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in. Some evolutionary psychologists apply the same thinking to psychology, arguing that the is similar to that of the body and with different modular adaptations serving different functions. Contents.Scope Principles Evolutionary psychology is an approach that views as the product of a universal set of evolved psychological adaptations to recurring problems in the ancestral environment. Proponents suggest that it seeks to integrate psychology into the other natural sciences, rooting it in the organizing theory of biology , and thus understanding as a branch of.
— Darwin, Charles (1859). P. 488 – via.Two of his later books were devoted to the study of animal emotions and psychology; in 1871 and in 1872. Darwin's work inspired 's functionalist approach to psychology. Darwin's theories of evolution, adaptation, and natural selection have provided insight into why brains function the way they do.The content of evolutionary psychology has derived from, on the one hand, the biological sciences (especially theory as it relates to ancient human environments, the study of and animal behavior) and, on the other, the human sciences, especially psychology.Evolutionary biology as an emerged with the in the 1930s and 1940s.
In the 1930s the study of animal behavior (ethology) emerged with the work of the Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and the Austrian biologists and.W.D. Hamilton's (1964) papers on and 's (1972) theories on and parental investment helped to establish evolutionary thinking in psychology and the other social sciences. In 1975, combined evolutionary theory with studies of animal and social behavior, building on the works of Lorenz and Tinbergen, in his book.In the 1970s, two major branches developed from ethology. Firstly, the study of animal social behavior (including humans) generated, defined by its pre-eminent proponent Edward O.
Wilson in 1975 as 'the systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior' and in 1978 as 'the extension of population biology and evolutionary theory to social organization.' Secondly, there was behavioral ecology which placed less emphasis on social behavior; it focused on the ecological and evolutionary basis of animal and behavior.In the 1970s and 1980s university departments began to include the term evolutionary biology in their titles. The modern era of evolutionary psychology was ushered in, in particular, by ' 1979 book and and 's 1992 book.From psychology there are the primary streams of, and cognitive psychology.
Establishing some measure of the relative influence of genetics and environment on behavior has been at the core of and its variants, notably studies at the molecular level that examine the relationship between genes, neurotransmitters and behavior. (DIT), developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s, has a slightly different perspective by trying to explain how is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes:. DIT is seen by some as a 'middle-ground' between views that emphasize human universals versus those that emphasize cultural variation. Theoretical foundations. Main article:The theories on which evolutionary psychology is based originated with Charles Darwin's work, including his speculations about the evolutionary origins of social instincts in humans.
Modern evolutionary psychology, however, is possible only because of advances in evolutionary theory in the 20th century.Evolutionary psychologists say that natural selection has provided humans with many psychological adaptations, in much the same way that it generated humans' anatomical and physiological adaptations. As with adaptations in general, psychological adaptations are said to be specialized for the environment in which an organism evolved, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness.
Sexual selection provides organisms with adaptations related to mating. For male, which have a relatively high maximal potential reproduction rate, sexual selection leads to adaptations that help them compete for females. For female mammals, with a relatively low maximal potential reproduction rate, sexual selection leads to choosiness, which helps females select higher quality mates. Charles Darwin described both natural selection and sexual selection, and he relied on group selection to explain the evolution of (self-sacrificing) behavior. But group selection was considered a weak explanation, because in any group the less altruistic individuals will be more likely to survive, and the group will become less self-sacrificing as a whole.In 1964, proposed theory, emphasizing a.
Hamilton noted that genes can increase the replication of copies of themselves into the next generation by influencing the organism's social traits in such a way that (statistically) results in helping the survival and reproduction of other copies of the same genes (most simply, identical copies in the organism's close relatives). According to, self-sacrificing behaviors (and the genes influencing them) can evolve if they typically help the organism's close relatives so much that it more than compensates for the individual animal's sacrifice. Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how altruism can evolve. Other theories also help explain the evolution of altruistic behavior, including, reciprocity, and generalized reciprocity. These theories help to explain the development of altruistic behavior, and account for hostility toward cheaters (individuals that take advantage of others' altruism).Several mid-level evolutionary theories inform evolutionary psychology.
The theory proposes that some species prosper by having many offspring, while others follow the strategy of having fewer offspring but investing much more in each one. Humans follow the second strategy. Parental investment theory explains how parents invest more or less in individual offspring based on how successful those offspring are likely to be, and thus how much they might improve the parents' inclusive fitness. According to the, parents in good conditions tend to invest more in sons (who are best able to take advantage of good conditions), while parents in poor conditions tend to invest more in daughters (who are best able to have successful offspring even in poor conditions).
According to, animals evolve life histories to match their environments, determining details such as age at first reproduction and number of offspring. Dual inheritance theory posits that genes and human culture have interacted, with genes affecting the development of culture, and culture, in turn, affecting human evolution on a genetic level (see also the ).Evolved psychological mechanisms. Main article:Evolutionary psychology is based on the hypothesis that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst a species, and should solve important problems of survival and.Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand psychological mechanisms by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might have served over the course of evolutionary history. These might include abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, cooperate with others and follow leaders. Consistent with the theory of natural selection, evolutionary psychology sees humans as often in conflict with others, including mates and relatives.
For instance, a mother may wish to wean her offspring from breastfeeding earlier than does her infant, which frees up the mother to invest in additional offspring. Evolutionary psychology also recognizes the role of kin selection and reciprocity in evolving prosocial traits such as altruism. Like and, humans have subtle and flexible social instincts, allowing them to form extended families, lifelong friendships, and political alliances. In studies testing theoretical predictions, evolutionary psychologists have made modest findings on topics such as infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price and parental investment. Historical topics Proponents of evolutionary psychology in the 1990s made some explorations in historical events, but the response from historical experts was highly negative and there has been little effort to continue that line of research.
Historian says that the historians complained that the researchers:have read the wrong studies, misinterpreted the results of experiments, or worse yet, turned to neuroscience looking for a universalizing, anti-representational and anti-intentional ontology to bolster their claims.Hunt states that, 'the few attempts to build up a subfield of psychohistory collapsed under the weight of its presuppositions.' She concludes that as of 2014 the 'iron curtain' between historians and psychology.remains standing.' Products of evolution: adaptations, exaptations, byproducts, and random variation Not all traits of organisms are evolutionary adaptations.
As noted in the table below, traits may also be, byproducts of adaptations (sometimes called 'spandrels'), or random variation between individuals.Psychological adaptations are hypothesized to be innate or relatively easy to learn, and to manifest in cultures worldwide. For example, the ability of toddlers to learn a language with virtually no training is likely to be a psychological adaptation. On the other hand, ancestral humans did not read or write, thus today, learning to read and write require extensive training, and presumably represent byproducts of cognitive processing that use psychological adaptations designed for other functions. However, variations in manifest behavior can result from universal mechanisms interacting with different local environments. For example, Caucasians who move from a northern climate to the equator will have darker skin. The mechanisms regulating their pigmentation do not change; rather the input to those mechanisms change, resulting in different output.AdaptationExaptationByproductRandom variationDefinitionOrganismic trait designed to solve an ancestral problem(s).
Main article:Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviors or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations. Cultural universals include behaviors related to language, cognition, social roles, gender roles, and technology. Evolved psychological adaptations (such as the ability to learn a language) interact with cultural inputs to produce specific behaviors (e.g., the specific language learned).Basic gender differences, such as greater eagerness for sex among men and greater coyness among women, are explained as sexually dimorphic psychological adaptations that reflect the different reproductive strategies of males and females. Research has also shown participants were able to recognize the facial expression of fear significantly better on a male face than on a female face. Females also recognized fear generally better than males.Evolutionary psychologists contrast their approach to what they term the ',' according to which the mind is a general-purpose cognition device shaped almost entirely by culture. Environment of evolutionary adaptedness. See also: andConsciousness meets ' criteria of species universality, complexity, and functionality, and it is a that apparently increases fitness.In his paper 'Evolution of consciousness,' argues that special anatomical and physical adaptations of the mammalian gave rise to consciousness.
In contrast, others have argued that the recursive circuitry underwriting consciousness is much more primitive, having evolved initially in pre-mammalian species because it improves the capacity for interaction with both social and natural environments by providing an energy-saving 'neutral' gear in an otherwise energy-expensive motor output machine. Once in place, this recursive circuitry may well have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions that consciousness facilitates in higher organisms, as outlined. Suggested that humans evolved consciousness in order to make themselves the subjects of thought.
Daniel Povinelli suggests that large, tree-climbing apes evolved consciousness to take into account one's own mass when moving safely among tree branches. Consistent with this hypothesis, found that chimps and orangutans, but not little monkeys or terrestrial gorillas, demonstrated self-awareness in mirror tests.The concept of consciousness can refer to voluntary action, awareness, or wakefulness. However, even voluntary behavior involves unconscious mechanisms. Many cognitive processes take place in the cognitive unconscious, unavailable to conscious awareness. Some behaviors are conscious when learned but then become unconscious, seemingly automatic.
Learning, especially implicitly learning a skill, can take place outside of consciousness. For example, plenty of people know how to turn right when they ride a bike, but very few can accurately explain how they actually do so.
Evolutionary psychology approaches self-deception as an adaptation that can improve one's results in social exchanges.Sleep may have evolved to conserve energy when activity would be less fruitful or more dangerous, such as at night, and especially during the winter season. Sensation and perception. See also: andMany experts, such as, write that the purpose of perception is knowledge, but evolutionary psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide action. For example, they say, seems to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other objects but rather to help us move around in space. Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, suggesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge.Building and maintaining sense organs is metabolically expensive, so these organs evolve only when they improve an organism's fitness. More than half the brain is devoted to processing sensory information, and the brain itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's metabolic resources, so the senses must provide exceptional benefits to fitness.
Perception accurately mirrors the world; animals get useful, accurate information through their senses.Scientists who study perception and sensation have long understood the human senses as adaptations to their surrounding worlds. Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the physical world. Vision evolved to respond to the narrow range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that does not pass through objects. Sound waves go around corners and interact with obstacles, creating a complex pattern that includes useful information about the sources of and distances to objects. Larger animals naturally make lower-pitched sounds as a consequence of their size.
The range over which an animal hears, on the other hand, is determined by adaptation. Homing pigeons, for example, can hear very low-pitched sound (infrasound) that carries great distances, even though most smaller animals detect higher-pitched sounds. Taste and smell respond to chemicals in the environment that are thought to have been significant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. For example, salt and sugar were apparently both valuable to the human or pre-human inhabitants of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness, so present day humans have an intrinsic hunger for salty and sweet tastes.
The sense of touch is actually many senses, including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. Pain, while unpleasant, is adaptive. An important adaptation for senses is range shifting, by which the organism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sensation. For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light.
Sensory abilities of different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats make.Evolutionary psychologists contend that perception demonstrates the principle of modularity, with specialized mechanisms handling particular perception tasks. For example, people with damage to a particular part of the brain suffer from the specific defect of not being able to recognize faces (prosopagnosia). Evolutionary psychology suggests that this indicates a so-called face-reading module. Learning and facultative adaptations In evolutionary psychology, learning is said to be accomplished through evolved capacities, specifically facultative adaptations. Facultative adaptations express themselves differently depending on input from the environment. Sometimes the input comes during development and helps shape that development.
For example, migrating birds learn to orient themselves by the stars during a critical period in their maturation. Evolutionary psychologists believe that humans also learn language along an evolved program, also with critical periods. The input can also come during daily tasks, helping the organism cope with changing environmental conditions. For example, animals evolved Pavlovian conditioning in order to solve problems about causal relationships. Animals accomplish learning tasks most easily when those tasks resemble problems that they faced in their evolutionary past, such as a rat learning where to find food or water. Learning capacities sometimes demonstrate differences between the sexes. In many animal species, for example, males can solve spatial problem faster and more accurately than females, due to the effects of male hormones during development.
The same might be true of humans. Emotion and motivation. Main article:Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective component to motivation, positive or negative.
In the early 1970s, and colleagues began a line of research which suggests that many emotions are universal. He found evidence that humans share at least five basic emotions: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust. Social emotions evidently evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptive in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.Motivation has a neurobiological basis in the of the brain.
Recently, it has been suggested that reward systems may evolve in such a way that there may be an or unavoidable in the motivational system for activities of short versus long duration. Cognition Cognition refers to internal representations of the world and internal information processing. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, cognition is not 'general purpose,' but uses heuristics, or strategies, that generally increase the likelihood of solving problems that the ancestors of present-day humans routinely faced. For example, present day humans are far more likely to solve logic problems that involve detecting cheating (a common problem given humans' social nature) than the same logic problem put in purely abstract terms. Since the ancestors of present-day humans did not encounter truly random events, present day humans may be cognitively predisposed to incorrectly identify patterns in random sequences. 'Gamblers' Fallacy' is one example of this. Gamblers may falsely believe that they have hit a 'lucky streak' even when each outcome is actually random and independent of previous trials.
Most people believe that if a fair coin has been flipped 9 times and Heads appears each time, that on the tenth flip, there is a greater than 50% chance of getting Tails. Humans find it far easier to make diagnoses or predictions using frequency data than when the same information is presented as probabilities or percentages, presumably because the ancestors of present-day humans lived in relatively small tribes (usually with fewer than 150 people) where frequency information was more readily available. Personality Evolutionary psychology is primarily interested in finding commonalities between people, or basic human psychological nature. From an evolutionary perspective, the fact that people have fundamental differences in personality traits initially presents something of a puzzle.
(Note: The field of behavioral genetics is concerned with statistically partitioning differences between people into genetic and environmental sources of variance. However, understanding the concept of can be tricky – heritability refers only to the differences between people, never the degree to which the traits of an individual are due to environmental or genetic factors, since traits are always a complex interweaving of both.)Personality traits are conceptualized by evolutionary psychologists as due to normal variation around an optimum, due to frequency-dependent selection (behavioral ), or as facultative adaptations. Like variability in height, some personality traits may simply reflect inter-individual variability around a general optimum. Or, personality traits may represent different genetically predisposed 'behavioral morphs' – alternate behavioral strategies that depend on the frequency of competing behavioral strategies in the population. For example, if most of the population is generally trusting and gullible, the behavioral morph of being a 'cheater' (or, in the extreme case, a sociopath) may be advantageous. Finally, like many other psychological adaptations, personality traits may be facultative – sensitive to typical variations in the social environment, especially during early development. For example, later born children are more likely than first borns to be rebellious, less conscientious and more open to new experiences, which may be advantageous to them given their particular niche in family structure.
It is important to note that shared environmental influences do play a role in personality and are not always of less importance than genetic factors. However, shared environmental influences often decrease to near zero after adolescence but do not completely disappear. Language. See also: andAccording to, who builds on the work by, the universal human ability to learn to talk between the ages of 1 – 4, basically without training, suggests that language acquisition is a distinctly human psychological adaptation (see, in particular, Pinker's ).
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Pinker and (1990) argue that language as a mental faculty shares many likenesses with the complex organs of the body which suggests that, like these organs, language has evolved as an adaptation, since this is the only known mechanism by which such complex organs can develop.Pinker follows Chomsky in arguing that the fact that children can learn any human language with no explicit instruction suggests that language, including most of grammar, is basically innate and that it only needs to be activated by interaction. Chomsky himself does not believe language to have evolved as an adaptation, but suggests that it likely evolved as a byproduct of some other adaptation, a so-called. But Pinker and Bloom argue that the organic nature of language strongly suggests that it has an adaptational origin.Evolutionary psychologists hold that the gene may well be associated with the evolution of human language. In the 1980s, psycholinguist identified a dominant gene that causes language impairment in the of Britain. This gene turned out to be a mutation of the FOXP2 gene. Humans have a unique allele of this gene, which has otherwise been closely conserved through most of mammalian evolutionary history.
This unique allele seems to have first appeared between 100 and 200 thousand years ago, and it is now all but universal in humans. However, the once-popular idea that FOXP2 is a 'grammar gene' or that it triggered the emergence of language in Homo sapiens is now widely discredited.Currently several competing theories about the evolutionary origin of language coexist, none of them having achieved a general consensus. Researchers of language acquisition in primates and humans such as and, argue that the innatist framework has understated the role of imitation in learning and that it is not at all necessary to posit the existence of an innate grammar module to explain human language acquisition.
Main article:Given that sexual reproduction is the means by which genes are propagated into future generations, sexual selection plays a large role in human evolution. Human, then, is of interest to evolutionary psychologists who aim to investigate evolved mechanisms to attract and secure mates. Several lines of research have stemmed from this interest, such as studies of mate selection mate poaching, mate retention, and.In 1972 published an influential paper on sex differences that is now referred to as. The size differences of is the fundamental, defining difference between males (small gametes – sperm) and females (large gametes – ova). Trivers noted that anisogamy typically results in different levels of parental investment between the sexes, with females initially investing more. Trivers proposed that this difference in parental investment leads to the of different between the sexes and to. For example, he suggested that the sex that invests less in offspring will generally compete for access to the higher-investing sex to increase their (also see ).
Trivers posited that differential parental investment led to the evolution of sexual dimorphisms in, intra- and inter- sexual reproductive competition,. In mammals, including humans, females make a much larger parental investment than males (i.e. Followed by childbirth and ). Parental investment theory is a branch of.and 's (1993) Sexual Strategies Theory proposed that, due to differential parental investment, humans have evolved sexually dimorphic adaptations related to 'sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment.'
Their Strategic Interference Theory suggested that conflict between the sexes occurs when the preferred reproductive strategies of one sex interfere with those of the other sex, resulting in the activation of emotional responses such as anger or jealousy.Women are generally more selective when choosing mates, especially under long term mating conditions. However, under some circumstances, short term mating can provide benefits to women as well, such as fertility insurance, trading up to better genes, reducing risk of inbreeding, and insurance protection of her offspring.Due to male paternity insecurity, sex differences have been found in the domains of. Females generally react more adversely to emotional infidelity and males will react more to sexual infidelity. This particular pattern is predicted because the costs involved in mating for each sex are distinct.
Women, on average, should prefer a mate who can offer resources (e.g., financial, commitment), thus, a woman risks losing such resources with a mate who commits emotional infidelity. Men, on the other hand, are never certain of the genetic paternity of their children because they do not bear the offspring themselves ('paternity insecurity'). This suggests that for men sexual infidelity would generally be more aversive than emotional infidelity because investing resources in another man's offspring does not lead to propagation of their own genes.Another interesting line of research is that which examines women's mate preferences across the. The theoretical underpinning of this research is that ancestral women would have evolved mechanisms to select mates with certain traits depending on their hormonal status.
Known as the, the theory posits that, during the ovulatory phase of a woman's cycle (approximately days 10–15 of a woman's cycle), a woman who mated with a male with high genetic quality would have been more likely, on average, to produce and bear a healthy offspring than a woman who mated with a male with low genetic quality. These putative preferences are predicted to be especially apparent for short-term mating domains because a potential male mate would only be offering genes to a potential offspring. This hypothesis allows researchers to examine whether women select mates who have characteristics that indicate high genetic quality during the high fertility phase of their ovulatory cycles. Indeed, studies have shown that women's preferences vary across the ovulatory cycle. In particular, Haselton and Miller (2006) showed that highly fertile women prefer creative but poor men as short-term mates. Creativity may be a proxy for good genes.
Research by Gangestad et al. (2004) indicates that highly fertile women prefer men who display social presence and intrasexual competition; these traits may act as cues that would help women predict which men may have, or would be able to acquire, resources.Parenting.
Main article:Reproduction is always costly for women, and can also be for men. Individuals are limited in the degree to which they can devote time and resources to producing and raising their young, and such expenditure may also be detrimental to their future condition, survival and further reproductive output.Parental investment is any parental expenditure (time, energy etc.) that benefits one at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of fitness (Clutton-Brock 1991: 9; Trivers 1972). Components of fitness (Beatty 1992) include the well-being of existing offspring, parents' future, and inclusive fitness through aid to kin (, 1964). Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory.Robert Trivers' theory of parental investment predicts that the sex making the largest investment in, nurturing and protecting offspring will be more discriminating in mating and that the sex that invests less in offspring will compete for access to the higher investing sex (see ). Sex differences in parental effort are important in determining the strength of sexual selection.The benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival and ultimately, on reproductive success of the offspring. However, these benefits can come at the cost of parent's ability to reproduce in the future e.g.
Through the increased risk of injury when defending offspring against predators, the loss of mating opportunities whilst rearing offspring and an increase in the time to the next reproduction. Overall, parents are to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will likely evolve when the benefits exceed the costs.The is an alleged high incidence of stepchildren being physically, emotionally or sexually abused, neglected, murdered, or otherwise mistreated at the hands of their stepparents at significantly higher rates than their genetic counterparts. It takes its name from the fairy tale character Cinderella, who in the story was cruelly mistreated by her stepmother and stepsisters. Daly and Wilson (1996) noted: 'Evolutionary thinking led to the discovery of the most important risk factor for child homicide – the presence of a stepparent. Parental efforts and investments are valuable resources, and selection favors those parental psyches that allocate effort effectively to promote fitness. The adaptive problems that challenge parental decision making include both the accurate identification of one's offspring and the allocation of one's resources among them with sensitivity to their needs and abilities to convert parental investment into fitness increments.
Stepchildren were seldom or never so valuable to one's expected fitness as one's own offspring would be, and those parental psyches that were easily parasitized by just any appealing youngster must always have incurred a selective disadvantage'(Daly & Wilson, 1996, pp. 64–65). However, they note that not all stepparents will 'want' to abuse their partner's children, or that genetic parenthood is any insurance against abuse. They see step parental care as primarily 'mating effort' towards the genetic parent.
Family and kin. Main article:Humans may have an evolved set of psychological adaptations that predispose them to be more cooperative than otherwise would be expected with members of their tribal, and, more nasty to members of tribal. These adaptations may have been a consequence of tribal warfare. Humans may also have predispositions for ' – to punish in-group members who violate in-group rules, even when this altruistic behavior cannot be justified in terms of helping those you are related to , cooperating with those who you will interact with again , or cooperating to better your reputation with others. Evolutionary psychology and culture. Main article:Though evolutionary psychology has traditionally focused on individual-level behaviors, determined by species-typical psychological adaptations, considerable work has been done on how these adaptations shape and, ultimately govern, culture (Tooby and Cosmides, 1989).
Tooby and Cosmides (1989) argued that the mind consists of many domain-specific psychological adaptations, some of which may constrain what cultural material is learned or taught. Main article:According to, the benefits granted by evolutionary selection decrease with age. Natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics that appear among older adults, such as. If it were a disease that killed 20-year-olds instead of 70-year-olds this may have been a disease that natural selection could have eliminated ages ago.
Thus, unaided by evolutionary pressures against nonadaptive conditions, modern humans suffer the aches, pains, and infirmities of aging and as the benefits of evolutionary selection decrease with age, the need for modern technological mediums against non-adaptive conditions increases. Social psychology As humans are a highly social species, there are many adaptive problems associated with navigating the social world (e.g., maintaining allies, managing status hierarchies, interacting with outgroup members, coordinating social activities, collective decision-making). Researchers in the emerging field of evolutionary social psychology have made many discoveries pertaining to topics traditionally studied by social psychologists, including person perception, social cognition, attitudes, altruism, emotions, motivation, prejudice, intergroup relations, and cross-cultural differences.When endeavouring to solve a problem humans at an early age show determination while chimpanzees have no comparable facial expression. Researchers suspect the human determined expression evolved because when a human is determinedly working on a problem other people will frequently help. Abnormal psychology Adaptationist hypotheses regarding the etiology of psychological disorders are often based on analogies between physiological and psychological dysfunctions, as noted in the table below.
Prominent theorists and include,. They, and others, suggest that mental disorders are due to the interactive effects of both nature and nurture, and often have multiple contributing causes. Main article:Evolutionary psychology has been applied to explain or otherwise immoral behavior as being adaptive or related to adaptive behaviors. Males are generally more aggressive than females, who are more selective of their partners because of the far greater effort they have to contribute to pregnancy and child-rearing. Males being more aggressive is hypothesized to stem from the more intense reproductive competition faced by them. Males of low status may be especially vulnerable to being childless.
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It may have been evolutionary advantageous to engage in highly risky and violently aggressive behavior to increase their status and therefore reproductive success. This may explain why males are generally involved in more crimes, and why low status and being unmarried is associated with criminality. Furthermore, competition over females is argued to have been particularly intensive in late adolescence and young adulthood, which is theorized to explain why crime rates are particularly high during this period.Many conflicts that result in harm and death involve status, reputation, and seemingly trivial insults. In his book argues that in non-state societies without a police it was very important to have a credible against aggression. Therefore, it was important to be perceived as having a credible reputation for retaliation, resulting in humans to develop instincts for as well as for protecting reputation (').
Pinker argues that the development of the state and the police have dramatically reduced the level of violence compared to the ancestral environment. Whenever the state breaks down, which can be very locally such as in poor areas of a city, humans again organize in groups for protection and aggression and concepts such as violent revenge and protecting honor again become extremely important.Rape is theorized to be a reproductive strategy that facilitates the propagation of the rapist's progeny.
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Such a strategy may be adopted by men who otherwise are unlikely to be appealing to women and therefore cannot form legitimate relationships, or by high status men on socially vulnerable women who are unlikely to retaliate to increase their reproductive success even further. The are highly controversial, as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation, and objections to this theory are made on ethical, religious, political, as well as scientific grounds.Psychology of religion. Main article:Adaptationist perspectives on suggest that, like all behavior, religious behaviors are a product of the human brain. As with all other organ functions, 's functional structure has been argued to have a genetic foundation, and is therefore subject to the effects of natural selection and sexual selection. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst humans and should have solved important problems of survival and reproduction in ancestral environments. However, evolutionary psychologists remain divided on whether religious belief is more likely a consequence of evolved psychological adaptations, or a byproduct of other cognitive adaptations. Coalitional psychology Coalitional is an approach to explain political behaviors between different and the of these behaviors in evolutionary psychological perspective.
This approach assumes that since human beings appeared on the earth, they have evolved to live in groups instead of living as individuals to achieve benefits such as more mating opportunities and increased status. Main article:Critics of evolutionary psychology accuse it of promoting genetic determinism, panadaptionism (the idea that all behaviors and anatomical features are adaptations), unfalsifiable hypotheses, distal or ultimate explanations of behavior when proximate explanations are superior, and malevolent political or moral ideas.
Ethical implications Critics have argued that evolutionary psychology might be used to justify existing social hierarchies and policies. It has also been suggested by critics that evolutionary psychologists' theories and interpretations of empirical data rely heavily on assumptions about race and gender.In response to such criticism, evolutionary psychologists often caution against committing the – the assumption that 'what is natural' is necessarily a moral good.
However, their caution against committing the naturalistic fallacy has been criticized as means to stifle legitimate ethical discussions. Contradictions in models Some criticisms of evolutionary psychology point at contradictions between different aspects of adaptive scenarios posited by evolutionary psychology.
One example is the evolutionary psychology model of extended social groups selecting for modern human brains, a contradiction being that the synaptic function of modern human brains require high amounts of many specific so that such a transition to higher requirements of the same essential nutrients being shared by all individuals in a population would decrease the possibility of forming large groups due to bottleneck foods with rare essential nutrients capping group sizes. It is mentioned that some insects have societies with different ranks for each individual and that monkeys remain socially functioning after removal of most of the brain as additional arguments against big brains promoting social networking. The model of males as both providers and protectors is criticized for the impossibility of being in two places at once, the male cannot both protect his family at home and be out hunting at the same time. Main article:Evolutionary psychology has been entangled in the larger philosophical and social science controversies related to the debate on.
Evolutionary psychologists typically contrast evolutionary psychology with what they call the standard social science model (SSSM). They characterize the SSSM as the ', ', ', and ' perspective that they say dominated the throughout the 20th century and assumed that the mind was shaped almost entirely by culture.Critics have argued that evolutionary psychologists created a between their own view and the of the SSSM.
Other critics regard the SSSM as a or a and suggest that the scientists whom evolutionary psychologists associate with the SSSM did not believe that the mind was a blank state devoid of any natural predispositions. Reductionism and determinism Some critics view evolutionary psychology as a form of genetic and, a common critique being that evolutionary psychology does not address the complexity of individual development and experience and fails to explain the influence of genes on behavior in individual cases. Evolutionary psychologists respond that they are working within a nature-nurture interactionist framework that acknowledges that many psychological adaptations are facultative (sensitive to environmental variations during individual development). The discipline is generally not focused on proximate analyses of behavior, but rather its focus is on the study of distal/ultimate causality (the evolution of psychological adaptations).
The field of behavioral genetics is focused on the study of the proximate influence of genes on behavior. Testability of hypotheses. See also:A frequent critique of the discipline is that the hypotheses of evolutionary psychology are frequently arbitrary and difficult or impossible to adequately test, thus questioning its status as an actual scientific discipline, for example because many current traits probably evolved to serve different functions than they do now. While evolutionary psychology hypotheses are difficult to test, evolutionary psychologists assert that it is not impossible. Part of the critique of the scientific base of evolutionary psychology includes a critique of the concept of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation (EEA).
Some critics have argued that researchers know so little about the environment in which Homo sapiens evolved that explaining specific traits as an adaption to that environment becomes highly speculative. Evolutionary psychologists respond that they do know many things about this environment, including the facts that present day humans' ancestors were hunter-gatherers, that they generally lived in small tribes, etc. Edward Hagen argues that the human past environments were not radically different in the same sense as the Carboniferous or Jurassic periods and that the animal and plant taxa of the era were similar to those of the modern world, as was the geology and ecology.
Hagen argues that few would deny that other organs evolved in the EEA (for example, lungs evolving in an oxygen rich atmopshere) yet critics question whether or not the brain's EEA is truly knowable, which he argues constitutes selective scepticism. Hagen also argues that most evolutionary psychology research is based on the fact that females can get pregnant and males cannot, which Hagen observes was also true in the EEA.
John Alcock describes this as the 'No Time Machine Argument', as critics are arguing that since it is not possible to travel back in time to the EEA, then it cannot be determined what was going on there and thus what was adaptive. Alcock argues that present day evidence allows researchers to be reasonably confident about the conditions of the EEA and that the fact that so many human behaviours are adaptive in the current environment is evidence that the ancestral environment of humans had much in common with the present one, as these behaviours would have evolved in the ancestral environment. Thus Alcock concludes that researchers can make predictions on the adaptive value of traits. Modularity of mind. Main article:Evolutionary psychologists generally presume that, like the body, the mind is made up of many evolved modular adaptations, although there is some disagreement within the discipline regarding the degree of general plasticity, or 'generality,' of some modules.
It has been suggested that modularity evolves because, compared to non-modular networks, it would have conferred an advantage in terms of fitness and because connection costs are lower.In contrast, some academics argue that it is unnecessary to posit the existence of highly domain specific modules, and, suggest that the neural anatomy of the brain supports a model based on more domain general faculties and processes. Moreover, empirical support for the domain-specific theory stems almost entirely from performance on variations of the which is extremely limited in scope as it only tests one subtype of deductive reasoning.
Cultural rather than genetic development of cognitive tools. Psychological Inquiry. 6: 1–30. Confer, J.C.; Easton, J.A.; Fleischman, D.S.; Goetz, C. D.; Lewis, D.M.G.; Perilloux, C.; Buss, D. American Psychologist.
65 (2): 110–26.; (2008). Evolution Psychology. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA:;. Pp. 158–61. (2012).
Michalos (ed.): Encyclopedia of Quality of Life Research (Springer, Berlin). Kennair, L. Human Nature Review. 2: 17–61. Medicus, G. Pp. 9, 10, 11.
Retrieved 8 September 2009. Oikkonen, Venla: Gender, Sexuality and Reproduction in Evolutionary Narratives.
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.Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in answer to the limitations of 's and 's. With its roots running from through the, this approach emphasizes the individual's inherent drive toward, the process of realizing and expressing one's own capabilities and creativity.This psychological perspective helps the client gain the belief that all people are inherently good. It adopts a approach to human existence and pays special attention to such phenomena as creativity, free will, and positive human potential. It encourages viewing ourselves as a 'whole person' greater than the sum of our parts and encourages self exploration rather than the study of behavior in other people.
Humanistic psychology acknowledges spiritual aspiration as an integral part of the. It is linked to the emerging field of.Primarily, this type of therapy encourages a self-awareness and mindfulness that helps the client change their state of mindand behaviour from one set of reactions to a healthier one with more productive self-awareness and thoughtful actions. Essentially, this approach allows the merging of mindfulness and behavioural therapy, with positive social support.In an article from the Association for Humanistic Psychology, the benefits of humanistic therapy are described as having a 'crucial opportunity to lead our troubled culture back to its own healthy path. More than any other therapy, Humanistic-Existential therapy models democracy.
It imposes ideologies of others upon the client less than other therapeutic practices. Freedom to choose is maximized. We validate our clients' human potential.'
In the 20th century, humanistic psychology was referred to as the 'third force' in psychology, distinct from earlier, less humanistic approaches of and.Its principal professional organizations in the US are the and the Society for Humanistic Psychology (Division 32 of the ). In Britain, there is the UK Association for Humanistic Psychology Practitioners.
Contents.Origins One of humanistic psychology's early sources was the work of, who was strongly influenced by, who broke with Freud in the mid-1920s. Rogers' focus was to ensure that the developmental processes led to healthier, if not more creative, personality functioning. The term 'actualizing tendency' was also coined by Rogers, and was a concept that eventually led to study as one of the needs of humans.
Rogers and Maslow introduced this positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis.The other sources of inspiration include the philosophies of and.Conceptual origins. (1902–1987), one of the founders of humanistic psychology.The humanistic approach has its roots in and thought (see, and ). And psychology also play a central role in humanistic psychology, as well as Judeo-Christian philosophies of, as each shares similar concerns about the nature of human existence and consciousness.For further information on influential figures in, see:, and.As behaviorism grew out of 's work with the conditioned reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in the United States associated with the names of and; gave behaviorism the name 'the second force'. Diagram illustrating the ' theory of (1908–1970). Click to enlarge.The aim of humanistic therapy is usually to help the client develop a stronger and healthier sense of self, also called. Humanistic therapy attempts to teach clients that they have potential for self-fulfillment.
This type of therapy is insight-based, meaning that the therapist attempts to provide the client with insights about their inner conflicts. Approaches Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counseling and therapy.
Among the earliest approaches we find the developmental theory of, emphasizing a and motivations; the of Rollo May acknowledging human choice and the tragic aspects of human existence; and the of, which is centered on the client's capacity for self-direction and understanding of his or her own development. Client-centered therapy is non-directive; the therapist listens to the client without judgement, allowing the client to come to insights by themselves.
The therapist should ensure that all of the client's feelings are being considered and that the therapist has a firm grasp on the concerns of the client while ensuring that there is an air of acceptance and warmth. Client-centered therapist engages in during therapy sessions.A therapist cannot be completely non-directive; however, a nonjudgmental, accepting environment that provides unconditional positive regard will encourage feelings of acceptance and value., an application of humanistic psychology, applies, which emphasizes the idea that humans have the freedom to make sense of their lives.
They are free to define themselves and do whatever it is they want to do. This is a type of humanistic therapy that forces the client to explore the meaning of their life, as well as its purpose. There is a conflict between having freedoms and having limitations. Examples of limitations include genetics, culture, and many other factors. Existential therapy involves trying to resolve this conflict.Another approach to humanistic counseling and therapy is, which puts a focus on the here and now, especially as an opportunity to look past any preconceived notions and focus on how the present is affected by the past. Role playing also plays a large role in Gestalt therapy and allows for a true expression of feelings that may not have been shared in other circumstances.
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While personal transformation may be the primary focus of most humanistic psychologists, many also investigate pressing social, cultural, and gender issues. In an academic anthology from 2018, British psychologist Richard House and his co-editors wrote, 'From its very outset, Humanistic Psychology has engaged fulsomely and fearlessly with the social, cultural and political, in a way that much of mainstream scientific, 'positivistic' psychology has sought to avoid'.Some of the earliest writers who were associated with and inspired by psychological humanism explored socio-political topics.
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